(A) History: From the Táng dynasty 唐朝 (618-907) onward, the Kam people were embroiled in several rebellions against invading Han settlers. These rebellions intensified during the Míng dynasty 明朝 (1368-1644) and are associated with historical and sometimes mythical hero figures that are still venerated in Kam society todayFor more information, see Geary, N. et al. (2003). The Kam people of China, turning nineteen. London: RoutledgeCurzon..

Zhàoxīng 肇兴 villageZhàoxīng 肇兴 village in Lípíng 黎平, Guìzhōu.The first rebel leader was a woman named Xing Ni （洗夫人）The Kam scholar Dèng Mĭnwén 邓敏文 (1990: 21) believes that Xing Ni was a historical figure who existed during the Táng dynasty (618-907). He and other Kam scholars identify the Kam goddess Sax Suic with Xing Ni which would provide a natural explanation for the worship of Sax Suic. See

邓敏文， 1990， 《萨》神试析。贵州民族研究，第二期，18-24 页， especially page 21.. Xing Ni was a singer who led a rebellion against the affluent Hàn landlord Lĭ Chángshùn 李长顺 in the Lípíng 黎平 county. She humiliated Lĭ Chángshùn by means of a magical sword, without killing him. Lĭ Chángshùn returned with reinforcements and snatched the sword. Xing Ni escaped and returned with a magical fan, with which she retook the sword and decapitated Lĭ. The landlord’s son called upon imperial troops under the pretext of quelling a Kam uprising. When the requested troops came to surround the rebellious village, Xing Ni stuck a deal with the spirit of a nearby lake. She sacrificed herself to become a stone in exchange for the spirit’s assistance in defeating the imperial army. The troops were indeed surmounted and Xing Ni petrified. For this reason, Xing Ni is revered by the Kam people until today.

Wú Miăn 吴勉 (?-1385) was another Kam rebel during the Míng dynasty 明朝 (1368-1644). The oppressive taxation system of the imperial government, coupled with the invading Han settlers, drove the Kam to open rebellion. The young Wú Miăn unleashed supernatural power upon hearing the news about the murder of his father by government forces.

From Guìzhōu, he shot supernatural arrows in the direction of the imperial throne in the capital of Nánjīng 南京. Since the shooting was badly timed, the arrows hit the throne in the absence of the emperor. On his part, the emperor was able to track the origin of the arrows, dispatched troops to Guìzhōu and combatted the rebels for seven years. Wú Miăn was eventually captured and executed in 1385. After Wú Miăn’s death, a burrow with golden treasures was discovered in the area close to his native village in Lípíng 黎平. When the emperor heard about the hole in the ground, he ordered an expedition in order to retrieve the treasures. After he and his soldiers went into the hole, its entrance was closed up and the hole ended up becoming their gravesNeedless to say that no mention of such a course of events is made in Chinese records. The emperor Hóngwǔ 洪武帝 (1328-1398), the first ruler of the Míng dynasty, died in Nánjīng and was buried at the Míng Xiàolíng Mausoleum 明孝陵.. Wú Miăn is revered in Southern Kam counties, except on a particular day of the year.

In the 1390s, the Northern Kam rebel Lin Kuan 林王 (?-1397) from the Jĭnpíng 锦屏 area led an insurrection against military outposts of the imperial government. Despite some military success, the Kam rebels were unable to withstand the constant influx of imperial reinforcements. Lin Kuan was captured and executed in 1397. The Northern Kam celebrate a Lin Kuan Day 林王节 in the sixth lunar month of every year.

From the 15^th century onward, the Han culture began to transform the Kam society. Han settlers brought new agricultural techniques, the Confucian education system, as well as the Buddhist religion to Southeast Guìzhōu. The Kam people did slowly adapt to the changing environment, but skirmishes with government troops continued until as recently as the 19^th century. The Kam participated in three Miao rebellions in the 18^th and 19^th century. Jiāng Yìngfāng 姜映芳 (1833-1862), a Northern Kam man of Tiānzhù 天柱 whose father was murdered in prison, organized a rebel army. He joined forces with Zhāng Xiùméi 张秀眉 (1823-1872), a central figure of the Third Miao rebellion (1854-1873). By 1862, the combined armies of Jiāng and Zhāng had occupied most of the Kam area in Guìzhōu and Húnán. The Qīng government collectively withdrew troops and conquered the rebel strongholds by means of superior gun power. Jiāng Yìngfāng was captured and executed in September 1862.

In 1934, the Red Army passed on its Long March through Southeast Guìzhōu. According to Norman GearySee Geary, N. et al. (2003). The Kam people of China, turning nineteen. London: RoutledgeCurzon., four hundred native Kam men of Tiānzhù 天柱 allied with the Republicans and were forced to retreat to Taiwan in 1949. During the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976), the native Kam culture was suppressed, as happened elsewhere in China. Kam operas and singing were prohibited as a result of this suppression. In the 1990s and 2000s, more than 150,000 Kam people left their villages in order to find work as migrant workers 民工 in factories of Guăngdong and the Chinese east coast. Most of them are young people.

Wind-and-Rain Bridge 风雨桥Wind-and-Rain Bridge 风雨桥 (Chéngyáng 程阳, Sānjiāng 三江, Guăngxī).(B) Architecture: There are a few architectural identity markers of the Kam people, the most prominent of them being Wind-and-Rain Bridges and Drum Towers. In these structures of high artistic value, the pillars, columns, and beams support each other by means of wood tenons but without using a single nail.

The first marker is Wind-and-Rain bridges; this name is attributed to the fact that they are roofed and offer shelter. Dozens of bridges are found in the Kam area. Perhaps the most famous bridge is located in Sānjiāng 三江 county (see photo). Dozens of Drum Towers stand in villages across the Kam area. Historically, their function was to serve as reference points in case of emergency, as places where the drum was beaten. Villagers now use these drum towers as social meeting points. Veranda HousesIn Kam, they are called Yanc Lanc Ganc 栏杆房子. are basically houses with long roofs and a veranda on the upper floor. Veranda houses belonging to members of the same family are clustered together.

C) Customs: The Kam people had a legal system called KuantThe term kuant might be an ancient Chinese loanword. In Mandarin, kuăn 款 is a classifier for legal texts that can be translated by paragraph, section. in place until the early 20th century that organized social life at the village level, regional level, and pan-Kam level. It is important to note that Kuant is not a written code, but a ruling system of institutional gatheringsSee Geary et al. (2003) for different types of Kuant.. Originally, a Kuant served as a protective alliance between Kam villages which was later institutionalized as a regular gathering. The functions of Kuant gatherings are admonitoryAdmonitory Kuant gatherings are held at the village level to remind people about moral standards and communal tasks., protectiveProtective Kuant gatherings were guided by the purpose of organizing resistance of several Kam villages against outside threats., judicialJudicial Kuant gatherings are organized at the level or regional level to judge and punish crimes. and legislativeLegislative Kuant gatherings are held at the regional or pan-Kam level to provide orientation on societal topics such as marriage.. A famous legislative Kuan at the pan-Kam level was held in Róngjiāng 榕江 county in 1735-1736 when 99 village elders gathered to decide, the prohibition of inter-clan marriage (Zhao 1999: 105), among other issues.

Life at the river in Fùlù 富禄Life at the river in Fùlù 富禄, Sānjiāng 三江, Guăngxī.As in the Miao society, the Kam society is organized into dozens of clans of patrilineal lineage, called douc. Members of a douc descend from a remote common ancestor and might be scattered over a larger area. Each clan consists of numerous families. The concept of a family entails a broader connotation as compared to Western countries. The reference point of each family is the ongs, the paternal (grand…)grandfather. In a Kam family, there might be cousins of 2^nd or 3^rd degree. Membership to a clan is inherited through birth or acquired through marriage.

The Kam people cultivate glutinous and ordinary rice on paddy fields in the mountains. Glutinous rice fields are located at a higher altitude, whereas white rice fields at a lower altitude. The average peasant must walk between one and three kilometers to reach the family’s paddy fields. Irrigation tubes made of bamboo supply the requisite water to the paddy fields. In addition to rice, the Kam people are also known to grow maize, millet and diverse vegetables, such as pumpkins, beans, cabbage, and onions. Meanwhile buffaloes, pigs, hens, and ducks are livestock kept at the homes of most people. Traditionally, women produce cloth from cotton by means of a loom. In most areas, the people wear dark blue color wherein they dye the cloth using indigo shrub, a plant primarily found in Asia.

The Kam people celebrate a number of festivals, some of which are locally restricted. The most important are listed below.

• New Year Day（新年节）The Kam name is sigs nyinc meik.：The Kam people celebrate a Kam New Year on the first day of the eleventh month of the lunar year as well as the Han New Year of the first day of the first month of the lunar year. The people of Kam also commemorate the victory of Xing Ni over the landlord Lĭ Chángshùn during the Han New Year.

• Lusheng Festival （芦笙节）The Kam name is sigs lenc.：In this festival on the fifteenth day of the eighth month, which is a dating event, young Kam men and women perform in singing competitions.

• Girl’s Day （姑娘节）The Kam name is sigs lagx meik. The Hmu celebrate a comparable festival, the Sister Festival （姊妹节） whose origins are opaque.：Black-colored rice is consumed on the eighth day of the fourth month of the lunar calendar to commemorate Yang Bamei, who helped her brother escape prison with a portion of black rice.

• Firecracker Day （花炮节） Firecracker Day （花炮节） in Cóngjiāng 从江, Guìzhōu.Festival of Bull Intestines （牛肠节）This festival corresponds to the Ancestor Festival （牯藏节） of the Hmu people.：This festival was celebrated at irregular intervals until the 20^th century in reverence of ancestors with whom the living people enter into communion by means of consuming bull intestines.

• Firecracker Day （花炮节）：On the second day of the second lunar month, firecrackers are set off. Young men attempt to snatch a metal hoop in a red envelope which was shot in the air in order to bring it back to the point of origin. The winner receives a prize. The metal hoop symbolizes the heart of a young girl sent out to the one who was destined to be her lover.

• Lin Kuan Day （林王节）：In Northern Kam counties, people commemorate the execution of Lin Kuan in 1397.

(A) Traditional Religion: Bearing a distinct resemblance with Hmu cosmogony, the first humans on earth in Kam creation mythology, Songh NgenhThe Kam name is transliterated in Chinese as Sòng Ēn 宋恩. (male) and Songh SanghThe Kam name is transliterated in Chinese as Sòng Sāng 宋桑. (female) gave birth to eight animals, one dragon, lightning and two human children, Xangl LiangcThe Kam name is transliterated in Chinese as Zhāng Liáng 张良. (male) and Xangl MuihThe Kam name is transliterated in Chinese as Zhāng Mèi 张妹. (female).

Xangl Liangc and Xangl Muih were drawn in an epic battle against lightning. Lightning unleashed torrential rains that submerged the whole earth. Xangl Liangc and Xangl Muih survived the flood in a big gourd. In the aftermath of the flood, lightning sent fireballs to the earth that resulted in a drought. One of these fireballs became the sun; another half fireball became the moon. After the lightning got defeated, Xangl Liangc and Xangl Muih were directed to marry and bear children. Xangl Muih bore a son without limbs and with a disfigured face. His parents chopped him into pieces and scattered them across different mountains. Soon thereafter, Xangl Liangc and Xangl Muih heard the voices of many babies. Some of these babies were Kam, some were Miao, and others were Han.

Colin MackerrasSee Mackerras, C., 1995, China’s Minority Cultures: Identities and integration since 1912. New York: Longman. describes the religion of Southwestern ethnic groups as Han-imported, as assuming weak societal functions, and as having weak clergies. The religion of the Dong, the Miao and, to a lesser extent, the Nuosu might be characterized in this way.

The Kam (Dong) religion is the worship of goddesses, ancestors, celestial bodies and nature. The goddesses seem to be derived from mythical ancestors. The Kam pantheon primarily consists of female deities. Sax Suic 萨岁The goddess name is written in the Kam script as Sax Suic (with variant form Sax Siis) and transliterated as Sàsuì 萨岁 or Shàsuì 莎岁 in Chinese. One possible etymon might relate to the form siis, the Kam loanword for zĭ 子 ‘the First of the 12 Earthly Branches’ in Chinese traditional astronomy. Another likely explanation is the noun suic ‘snake’. The etymology of Sax Suic would thus be ‘female snake ancestor’. Since snakes are revered as progenitors of the Bǎiyuè 百越 people, the remote ancestors of the Tai-Kadai peoples, this second etymon is probable., the most prominent among all worshiped goddesses, is the bestower of wealth and peace. Some Kam writersFor example Wáng Shèngxiān 王胜先, 1983, “Shāsuì” Dòng hero epic 《嘎莎岁》是侗族英雄史诗. Symposium on the History of Chinese Minorities 中国少数民族史诗学术讨论会. Held in Xīníng 西宁, Qīnghǎi 青海 in 1983 and

Dèng Mĭnwén 邓敏文, 1990, A trial analysis of Sà goddess 《萨》神试析. Guìzhōu Nationality Research 贵州民族研究 2, 18-24. relate Sax Suic to the female rebel leader Xing Ni, a romanticized Kam scion of the Tang Dynasty (618-907). Xing Ni rebelled against an oppressive Han landlord. Most villages dedicate an altar to Sax Suic with a half-open umbrella stuck to it. Meanwhile other revered deities are the Sax Biingl 寨门女神, the village access goddess, who repels diseases and disasters whilst preserving harmony within the village; the Sax Bias 雷女神In Kam, bias means ‘thunder’., the evil ‘thunder goddess’; Sax Gaos Jiuc 桥头女神In Kam, gaos means ‘head’; jiuc means ‘bridge’., the protective ‘bridge goddess’; Sax Guaenl 妖魂In Kam, guaenl means ‘soul’., the evil possession demon; and Sax Biins 龟女神In Kam, biins means ‘turtle’., the mythical turtle goddess (the turtle is totem of the Kam people).

It is interesting to note that there is no term for the concept of Almighty God. The term Wangx MenlCompare with Wangx Waix ‘King of Heaven’ in Hmu, which is a neologism as well. ‘King of Heaven’ is used in the New Testament of 2006. This neologism is intelligible, albeit without standardized use. The Kam people revere snakes, dragons and turtles as brothers of Xangl Liangc and Xangl Muih. They worship ancestors, both clan ancestors, and family ancestors. In addition, they observe a Tomb Sweeping Day 清明节 now on the same day as the Han people, which falls during early April. Celestial bodies and elements of nature such as the sun, the moon, lightning, fire, mountains, and trees are also occasionally worshipped.

The Kam people practice shamanism and sorcery. Male shamans are invited to people’s homes in case of illness. The shaman generally repels or placates the demon which is responsible for a disease by offering a sacrifice. Sorcerers act on demand to avenge people who feel oppressed by someone. A falling knife performs the curse during a ceremony.

(B) Christianity: After 1895, the Christian and Missionary AllianceThe Christian and Missionary Alliance （宣道会） was established in Colorado Springs, USA, in 1897 through the merger of two independent organizations founded in 1887. established a Bible College in Wúzhōu 梧州, a city of Guăngxī province, and made short-term mission trips to Guìzhōu and Yúnnán. In 1920, two American missionaries evangelized a native Kam in Róngjiāng 榕江, a certain Mr. Huang 黄先生, who became a Christian and received formal theological education. The American missionary A. F. Desterhaft 丁意文 settled in Fùlù 富禄 in 1931 and started to learn the Kam language before establishing a mission station. Subsequently Desterhaft was promoted to the office of superintendent during 1943-1948. Two Chinese missionaries of the Christian Missionary Alliance did plant a Kam church in Róngjiāng in 1938, about which not much detail is known.

The German missionary Gustav Juttka 郁德凯See Juttka, G., 1926-1948, Bimonthly Prayer Letters (in German). Archived at the Liebenzell Mission. (1899-1992) of the Liebenzell MissionOn the initiative of Hudson Taylor, the Liebenzell Mission （立本责信义会） was founded in 1899 as the German branch of the China Inland Mission. In 1902, its administrative seat was shifted from Hamburg to Bad Liebenzell. In 1906, it became independent of the China Inland Mission. Today, the Liebenzell Mission is one of the greatest German missions and runs mission stations in more than 26 countries worldwide. was stationed in Lípíng 黎平 county between 1928 and 1947. With the support of Hàn Chinese preachers, Juttka established a church in Lípíng in which hundreds of people converted to Christianity and many dozens were baptized. Most converts in this church were ethnic Hàn, but native Kam people attended it as well, particularly after 1942 when foreigners were prohibited from traveling to the countryside. Juttka’s team was active in preaching the gospel to the Kam villages of the Lípíng and Sānjiāng 三江 districts. At different times, Juttka recruited Kam-speaking believers who helped communicate with the indigenous population. Juttka commenced the process of learning the Kam language and transcribed individual Kam expressions in Latin script, although he did not translate any Bible portion. Juttka visited more than one hundred Kam villages with his team, preached the Gospel at countless gatherings, and distributed large numbers of Chinese New Testaments and tracts. In the 1930s and 1940s, Southeast Guìzhōu was plagued by bands of disgruntled robbers. Despite his life-threatening encounters with bandits, Juttka wondrously escaped unscathed.

A few dozens of Kam people converted to the Christian faith mainly in the Dìqīng 地青 area of Hóngzhōu 洪州 township and in Shuĭkŏu 水口 township. In 1947, Juttka was ordered to leave when the fight between Republicans and Communists was in full swing.

In 1947, William and Elaine Neill, missionaries of the Apostolic Church Missionary MovementThe Apostolic Church Missionary Movement 使徒会 is a Pentecostal movement that started in 1904-1905 in Wales and Northern England. Missionary work in China began in 1924. At some point, Scandinavian and New Zealand missionaries joined the team in China. from Wellington in New Zealand, settled down in Lípíng 黎平 to replace Juttka. They were also instructed to leave, but managed to stay in the nearby county of Zhènyuăn 镇远 until 1951.

During 2000-2009, Norman and Ruth Geary （吉志义和孔瑞贤） of the Summer Institute of Linguistics (SIL)The Summer Institute of Linguistics （语言暑期学院） and the Wycliffe Bible Translators （威克里夫圣经翻译者） were established by the Presbyterian minister William Cameroon Townsend in 1936 and 1942 as American-based organizations. Both twin organizations have a membership overlap of more than 90% and count 6,000 members worldwide. They divide the labor along the following lines. The Summer Institute of Linguistics is occupied with scientific matters such as linguistic, anthropological and educational work, while the Wycliffe Bible Translators conduct Bible translation projects. undertook a literacy program in a preschool and primary school in Zăidāng 宰荡, a remote village of Róngjiāng 榕江 county. People in this village are mainly monolingual speakers of Kam. For this project, a team of Kam teachers edited 500 Kam stories and other educational material in their native language. In 2002, the literacy programSee Geary, N. and Pan Y.R., 2003, “A bilingual pilot project among the Kam people”. Journal of multilingual and multicultural development 24, 274-289. was extended to encompass five additional schools in Róngjiāng 榕江: Bākuāng 八匡, Dàlìdòng 大利洞, Gāodòng 高洞, Guīliŭ 归柳, and Miáolán 苗兰. Jacob Finifrock, an American educator, coordinated teaching of English as L3 language for most of the period 2000-2009.

During several trips to the Southern Kam area in 2001, an independent group of American Pentecostal missionaries converted young Kam people in Sānjiāng 三江 county. After training them, they sent one Kam missionary family to Lípíng 黎平 with the aim of planting churches.

Between 1996 and 2005, members of the Research Foundation and several native Kam speakers translated the New Testament in the Kam language. Copies of the New Testament were distributed in the Southern Kam area. A short sketch of the translation process is presented on this webpage.

(A) General information: The Kam belongs to the Tai-Kadai family, a small language family comprising of about 75 members. The most important languages of this family are classified as follows.

The Tai-Kadai people originated from South China 2,500 years ago and have migrated in waves to places across Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and Myanmar.

(B) Rare properties: The Kam language has a number of exceptional features in terms of grammar.

Morphology. The Kam language exhibits about 300 ideophones, which is more than that of other languages of East Asia. Ideophones are sound-symbolic syllables that are used after a verb or adjective in order to enhance its meaning. Some of these ideophones demonstrate interesting semiotic relationships with their host. Matthias GernerSee Gerner, M., 2004, “Expressives in Kam (Dong): A study in sign typology”. Cahiers de Linguistique Asie Orientale 33, 159-202. (2004) presents a semiotic analysis of these ideophones, also referred to as expressives.

(1) Ideophones derived from nouns

a.

jaenv

aiv

a'.

pangp

jaenv jaenv

crest

rooster

important

IDE~

‘the rooster’s crest’

‘of important stature’ (also for people)

(2) Ideophones derived from verbs

a.

maoh

dabs

lis

hok

peet

bail.

a'.

mal

naih

lianh

peet peet.

he

carry

so that

goods

tremble

go

dish

this

spicy

IDE~

‘He carries a load so that the goods inside tremble.’

‘This dish is so spicy.’ (It makes people tremble.)

b.

bienl

xenh naih

kiuk

jenx

lac.

b'.

gemv

kiuk kiuk

rain

now

stop

a bit

OPINION

quiet

IDE~

‘The rain has almost stopped now.’

‘dead calm’

c.

duc

bal

naih

duc

gungc.

c'.

qik

dux dux

CLASSIFIER

fish

this

poisonous

very

angry

IDE~

‘This fish is very poisonous.’

‘very angry’ (of poisonous mood)

d.

jads

lamh

jads

ugs

d'.

jongv

jadl jadl

twist

rope

twist

clothes

crooked

IDE~

‘knit a rope’

‘knit a rope’

‘twisted and crooked’

(3) Ideophones resemble sound of host

		Host	Host and Ideophone
	a.	dengv ‘dark’	dengv duml duml ‘pitch-black’
	b.	gaenx ‘tidy’	gaenx gadl gadl ‘very tidy’
	c.	meik ‘new’	meik miaot miaot ‘brand-new’
	d.	guas ‘hard’	guas guadl guadl ‘rock hard’
	e.	guanv ‘stiff’	guanv guens guens ‘starched’ (clothes)
	f.	kop ‘slipppery’	kop kongk kongk ‘very slippery’
	g.	yimk ‘cool’	yimk yix yix ‘pleasantly cool’
	h.	lianh ‘spicy’	lianh lieuc lieuc ‘extremely spicy’
	i.	luv ‘clear’	luv lengh lengh ‘crystal-clear’ (of water)
	j.	mas ‘soft’	mas mobc mobc ‘soft and loose’
	k.	qak ‘light’	qegt qegt ‘very light’
	l.	nyanp ‘itchy’	nyanp nyit nyit ‘very itchy’
	m.	pap ‘grey’	pap put put ‘ash-grey’
	n.	sik ‘fine’	sik sebl sebl ‘very fine’
	o.	xegs ‘scald	xegs xeeh xeeh ‘burning’ (e.g. sun)

(4) Ideophones as interjection

a.

aox

semx

naih

anc

iux iux.

a'.

aox

yanc

xaop

dunl

huh huh.

in

room

this

messy

IDE~

in

home

your

warm

IDE~

‘This room is really messy.’ (Simulating outcry)

‘In your house it is so warm.’ (Simulating purring)

(5) Onomatopoeic ideophones

		Host	Host and Ideophone
	a.	gol ‘laugh’	gol liil liil ‘giggle’ (Simulating sound of a giggle)
	b.	gol ‘laugh’	gol hah hah ‘laugh’ (Simulating sound of a normal laugh)
	c.	gol ‘laugh’	gol qat qat ‘laugh’ (Simulating sound of a roaring laugh)
	d.	nees ‘weep’	nees nguc nguc (Simulating sound of weeping)
	e.	sonl ‘snore’	sonl hodx hodx (Simulating sound of snoring)
	f.	jil ‘eat’	jil miadx miadx (Simulating sound of a clicking tongue)
	g.	jil ‘eat’	jil odx odx (Simulating sound of gulping food)
	h.	ungt ‘sound’	ungt kodx kodx (Simulating sound of hungry tummy or borborygmus)
	i.	banl ‘shout’	banl ngak ngak (Simulating sound of crying baby)
	j.	liac ‘lick’	liac liebc liebc (Simulating sound of noisy licking by a dog)
	k.	xouk ‘peck’	xouk dobs dobs (Simulating sound of pecking by a woodpecker)
	l.	sint ‘call’	sint ngueev ngueev (Simulating sound of cawing by a raven)
	m.	biagl ‘whip’	biagl xids xids (Simulating sizzling sound of a whip)
	n.	guenl ‘cut’	guenl jebx jebx (Simulating cutting sound of scissors)
	o.	beeuv ‘crack’	beeuv piedp piedp (Simulating cracking sound of popcorn)
	p.	dags ‘knock’	dags dengl dengl (Simulating knocking sound of a loom)

Syntax. In the Kam language, passive constructionsSee Gerner, M., 2003, “Passive of affect in Kam (Dong) and other Kadai languages”. Australian Journal of Linguistics 23(1), 35-70. are formed with a passive particle (douh), which also functions as plain verb touch as well as the modal auxiliary verb must.

(6) Douh as verb touch

a.

maoh

douh

jemc ids

yaoc

yangx.

he

touch

wound

my

DP

‘He has touched my wound.’

b.

maoh

douh

miadx.

c.

maoh

douh

bienl.

he

touch

knife

he

touch

rain

‘He was cut by a knife.’

‘He was drenched by rain.’

d.

maoh

douh

sais.

e.

maoh

douh

nuic laox.

he

touch

intestines

he

touch

leprosy

‘He was satisfied.’

‘He got leprosy.’

(7) Douh as verb must

a.

maoh

douh

qamt

weengc.

b.

nyac

douh

suit

xenl

oul

it

must

walk

sideways

you

must

dress

body

EXCL

‘It must walk sideways.’

‘You must dress well.’

(8) Douh as passive particle

		gueec	yanc	xaop	douh	maoh	jeih	dah.
		buffalo	home	you	PASS	he	count	EXP
		‘Your family’s buffalo were counted by him.’

There is a productive construction wherein an adjective is placed between a possessor and possessee noun. The predication zooms in from the possessor onto the possessee. We call this Zoom-on-possessee (ZoP) construction, whose syntax is different from the regular possessive construction. Some of these constructions have a literal meaning, whereas others have a metaphorical signification. Matthias GernerSee Gerner, M., 2005, “The zoom-on-possessee construction in Kam (Dong)”. Journal of Linguistics 41, 307-352. (2005) provides a detailed account of ZoP-constructions.

(9) Possessive constructions versus ZoP-constructions

		Possessive Construction												ZoP-construction
	a.	dal	maoh				ladc				gungc.		a'.	maoh		ladc				dal.
		eyes	he				protruding				very			he		protruding				eyes
		‘His eyes are very protruding.’												‘He is protruding at his eyes.’
	b.	jiv		maoh				lail		gungc.			b'.	maoh		lail	jiv.
		idea		he				good		very				he		good	idea
		‘His ideas are very good.’												‘He is good at having ideas.’
	c.	xenl		bal				bagx		gungc.			c'.	bal	bagx			xenl.
		body		fish				white		very				fish	white			body
		‘The body of the fish is very white’												‘The fish went belly-up.’
	d.	soh			kuaot			dangl			gungc.		d'.	kuaot		dangl			soh.
		odour			wine			fragrant			very			wine		fragrant			odour
		‘The smell of the wine is very good.’												‘The wine smells good.’
	e.	sais				maoh			yais		gungc.		e'.	maoh		yais	sais.
		intestines				he			long		very			he		long	intestines
		‘His intestines are very long.’												‘He is long sufffering.’
	f.	ebl				maoh			mas		gungc.		f'.	maoh		mas	ebl.
		mouth				he			soft		very			he		soft	mouth
		‘His mouth is very soft.’												‘He is relenting.’
	g.	dal				maoh			yak		gungc.		g'.	maoh		yak	dal.
		eyes				he			red		very			he		red	eyes
		‘His eyes are very red.’												‘He is envious.’

 

(C) Writing system: In the 1950s, the Bĕijīng Communist Government sent out investigation teams into the minority areas. In 1957, the Kam investigation team chose the Southern Kam dialect as the basis for developing a script. The team selected the speech of Zhānglŭ 章鲁 village in Róngjiāng 榕江, primarily due to its vicinity to the county city. They developed a Romanized script, such as the script in the Qanao language. The Kam script is semi-official, and is yet to be adopted in its entirety by the Government.

The New Testament that the Research Foundation published in 2006 uses the Romanized script. The Kam script has three parts, one each for initials, finals, tones. There are 29 consonants (initials) in Southern Kam, two of which are only used in Chinese loanwords and the remaining is used by older speakers. The high number of contrastive points of articulation for stops and nasals is relatively rare. In particular, there are six fully contrastive nasals.

In Zhānglŭ 章鲁 speech, there are 50 finals, 36 vowels with, and 14 vowels without coda. Among the 14 vowels without coda, there are six monophthongues and eight diphthongues. There are two allophones distinguished by vowel length ([u] versus [u:]).

In Kam there are nine contrastive tones that are depicted with illustrations in the following chart. In the Romanized script, these tones are written with a silent final letter (e.g. -p, -x).

The Kam alphabet consists of 26 letters, which mark initials, finals, and tones. In the below table, each letter is introduced with contrastive examples of the basic Kam vocabulary.

A a	B b	Bilingual education in Kam and Chinese
C c	D d
E e	F f
G g	H h
I i	J j
K k	L l
M m	N n
O o	P p
Q q	R r
S s	T t
U u	V v
W w	X x
Y y	Z z

In finals	[A a]
a	al ‘song’; av ‘price’; bal ‘fish’; gax ‘Han Chinese’
ai	aiv ‘chicken’; bail ‘go’; sais ‘intestines’; xaip ‘servant’
ao	aol ‘take’; daol ‘we (incl.)’; kuaot ‘wine’
am	ams ‘dare’; hamk ‘ask’; lamh ‘rope’; qamt ‘walk’
aem	aemv ‘carry on back’; biaeml ‘hair’; gaeml ‘Kam, Dong’
an	anh ‘pole’; banl ‘man’; yanc ‘home’
aen	aenp ‘swallow’; biaenl ‘tooth’; guaenc ‘smoke’
ang	angv ‘jar’; guangs ‘bowl’; xangc ‘bed’
aeng	aengl ‘monkey’; naengl ‘nose’; yaengt ‘healthy’
ab	abs ‘bathe’; dabs ‘load’; liabs ‘grab’
ad	ads ‘cut’; hadp ‘salty’; nadl ‘sore’; padt ‘blood’
ag	ags ‘special’; piagk ‘pinch’; yags ‘tear’

In initials	[B b]
b	baengl ‘collapse’; bagx ‘white’; bax ‘locust’
	beel ‘sell’; beeuv ‘leopard’; bens ‘fly’
	bongc ‘tent’; bouc ‘pigeon’; bungv ‘dust’
bi	biaenl ‘tooth’; bial ‘rock’; bias ‘thunder’
	bienl ‘rain’; bieeuv ‘run’; biungl ‘wolf’

In finals	[B b]
ab	abs ‘merge’; gabl ‘box’; habp ‘gift’; sabx ‘mixed’
eb	ebc ‘cover’; jebl ‘pick up’; lebc ‘tell’; xebc ‘ten’
ib	jibx ‘pile up’; sibs ‘receive’
ob	obs ‘hot compress’; gobs ‘just now’
ub	ubs ‘clasp’; jubs ‘wax gourd’; subs ‘meet’

In initialsIn Chinese loanwords.	[C c]
c	cunx ‘inch’

As tone	[C c]
c	dabc ‘put aside’; deic ‘take’; lamc ‘forget’; meec ‘not’
	miac ‘hand’; nyenc ‘person’; nyinc ‘year’
	sinc ‘money’; singc ‘kindness’; yac ‘two’

In initials	[D d]
d	dal ‘eye’; daeml ‘pond’; daengl ‘each other’
	dees ‘below’; deil ‘die’; deml ‘meet’
	dinl ‘foot’; dol ‘door’; douh ‘by’; dul ‘pull up’

In finals	[D d]
ad	dadl ‘fell’; miads ‘whitewash’; yadc ‘command’
ed	jedl ‘firewood’; kuedp ‘steel’; sedl ‘tail’
id	ids ‘ill’; idx ‘bite’; lidx ‘tear open’; sidt ‘cut’
	piidt ‘scrape; blame’
od	miodx ‘miss opportunity’; todt ‘take off’; xodx ‘destroy’
ud	buds ‘rub’; mudx ‘beard’; xudt ‘suck’

In finals	[E e]
ee	ees ‘stupid’; gueec ‘ox’; liees ‘sheep’; weex ‘do’
ei	eip ‘open’; deih ‘bag’; meik ‘new’; neix ‘mother’
eeu	eeul ‘stick to’; eeus ‘teach’; leeuv ‘sting’; seeup ‘horn’
em	ems ‘medicine’; jemc ‘hole’; lemc ‘wind’
eem	eems ‘decrease’; heemx ‘call’; leemv ‘stem’
en	env ‘mark’; bens ‘always’; menl ‘sky’
een	eenl ‘classifier’; deenh ‘a little’; weenh ‘ten thousand’
eng	dengv ‘dark’; lengh ‘approach’; xengc ‘contain’
eeng	eengv ‘again’; mieengc ‘ear of grain’; xeengp ‘unfamiliar’
aem	jaemc ‘hide’; gaems ‘suppress’; saemh ‘generation’
aen	aenp ‘swallow’; baenl ‘bamboo’; guaenl ‘soul’
aeng	daengv ‘create’; haengt ‘willing’; laengh ‘flee’
eb	ebl ‘mouth’; yebc ‘seal’; kebp ‘centipede’
ed	edl ‘first’; ngedl ‘crowded’; wedt ‘send, issue’; xedl ‘star’
eg	egt ‘guest’; legc ‘strength’; pegt ‘clap’

In initialsIn Chinese loanwords.	[F f]
f	fanh nganl ‘plan for action’; fangh beec ‘proconsul’
	fat liit ‘law’; feih jih ‘airplane’

In initials	[G g]
g	gas ‘wait’; gaenx ‘together’; gaos ‘head’
	geeus ‘crawl’; gol ‘laugh’; gungc ‘much’
gu	guanl ‘name’; guaov ‘knee’; guis ‘stream’
ng	ngeec ‘sprout’; ngeeux ‘strive for’; nguk ‘pig’
ngu	nguap ‘dog’; ngueec ‘saliva’; ngueex ‘roof tile’

In finals	[G g]
ang	nyangt ‘grass’; pangp ‘big’; sangh ‘craftsman’
aeng	baengv ‘bank, shore’; maengx ‘happy’; saengl ‘root’
eng	xengc ‘contain’; yengk yengk ‘one after another’
eeng	beengc ‘drum tower’; beengl ‘expel’
ing	dingv ‘bottom, base’; qingk ‘hear’; yingp ‘spirit’
	biingc banx ‘friend’; bagl biingv ‘testimony’
ong	ongl ‘classifier for trees’; longc ‘belly’; nongx ‘younger brother’
ung	ungs ‘make sounds’; sungp ‘word’; mungv ‘thorn, sting’
ag	agx dagx ‘dregs’; magx ‘ink stick’; xagx ‘slander’
eg	egs ‘yoke’; begs ‘one hundred’; miegs ‘female’
ig	digs ‘full’; jigx ‘bamboo flute’; sigs ‘festival’
	biigs ‘harass’
og	hogc ‘bless’; jogc ‘bend the knee’; xogc ‘ripe, familiar’
ug	ugs ‘exit’; nugs ‘outside’; xugs ‘wash’

In initials	[H h]
h	hap ‘threaten’; hadt ‘reprimand’; haenh ‘cherish’
	haic ‘shoe’; heenk ‘limit’; heeup ‘hit’
	hoik ‘quick’; hut ‘poor’

As tone	[H h]
h	baengh ‘depend’; dah ‘pass’; juih ‘cupboard’; luih ‘descend’
	naih ‘this’; nyaoh ‘be at’; senh ‘stand’; soh ‘breath’
	wanh ‘change’; xaih ‘sieve’

In initials	[I i]
bi	biags ‘forehead’; bianh ‘spread’; biedl ‘pen’; biiul ‘jump’
pi	piat ‘turn over’; pieek ‘distribute’; pieengp ‘roast’
li	liagp ‘cold’; liemc ‘irrigate’; liop ‘wake up’
mi	mieeh ‘understand’; mieengc ‘several’; miungx ‘grasshopper’
	miiuh ‘temple’; beeuv miiuc ‘sprout’

In finals	[I i]
i	bix ‘do not’; lix ‘speech’; xic ‘one or two hours’
	biiv ‘close’; liih ‘vow’; siik ‘four’
im	jiml ‘put up’; nyimp ‘with’; yimk ‘account’
	liimc ‘sickle’; liimx ‘put in order’
in	dinl ‘foot’; bins ‘yeast’; sinp ‘thousand’
	biinv ‘correct’; miinc ‘cloth’; xiuv miinh ‘mirror’
ing	bings singh ‘holy’; dingv ‘cheat’
	biingc ‘even’; liingh ‘bachelor’; liingx ‘acknowledge’
ib	jibx ‘pile up’; sibs ‘receive’
id	ids ‘grape’; midx ‘knife’; yidx ‘draw a cart’
	piidt ‘scrape, reprimand’
ig	jigs ‘Classifier of certain animals’; sigx ‘entertain’; xigt ‘size’
	biigs ‘persecute’
iu	biiul ‘jump’; miiuh ‘temple’; jiuc ‘Classifier of lengthy objects’
	siuk ‘carve’; xiut ‘lack’
ai	lail ‘good’; maix ‘wife’; waic ‘scull, row’
ei	eis ‘not’; beis ‘pay back’; meix ‘tree’; xeih ‘disaster’
oi	oil ‘many’; qoip ‘insult’; soix ‘sin, crime’; toip ‘retreat’
ui	buic ‘fat’; juis ‘demon’; suiv ‘sit’

In initials	[J j]
j	jaix ‘elder brother’; jaenx ‘near’; jangs ‘be (copular)’
	jav ‘that’; jeis ‘buy’; jenc ‘mountain’; jil ‘eat, drink’
	jov ‘saw’; juml ‘gather’; jungl ‘lift, carry’

In initials	[K k]
k	kaik ‘fence’; kaemk ‘fall prostrate’; kap ‘ear’
	keep ‘guard against’; kip ‘plough’; konx ‘clause of law’
	kop kongp ‘free’; kuk ‘tremble’
ku	kuadt ‘wipe’; kuak ‘goods’; kuanp ‘sweet’
	kuaot ‘wine’; kuenp ‘road’; kuip ‘hook’

As tone	[K k]
k	louk ‘surpass’; pak ‘corrupt’; qak ‘ascend’; senk ‘believe’
	tamk ‘visit’; touk ‘arrive’; wongk ‘bucket’
	xangk ‘think’; xunk ‘germinate’; yak ‘red’

In initials	[L l]
l	lags ‘bone’; laih ‘choose’; laos ‘enter’
	lav ‘burst open’; ledp ‘all’; leel ‘discourse particle’
	lis ‘receive’; longx ‘pass on’; luv ‘hungry’
li	liac ‘lick, lap’; liaenv ‘untie’; liait ‘sparrow’
	liaop ‘push’; lionc ‘surround’; liongc ‘dragon’
	liuuh ‘filter’; liuuk ‘urge’

As tone	[L l]
l	beel ‘sell’; buil ‘fire’; dal ‘eye’; gol ‘salt’
	jeml ‘gold’; jinl ‘stone’; lol ‘boat’; mal ‘vegetables’
	senl ‘township’; xal ‘cover’

In initials	[M m]
m	mac ‘tongue’; mags ‘big’; maoc ‘manure’
	meel ‘bear’; meenh ‘still, yet’; meix ‘Classifier of clothes’
	muc ‘example’; munc ‘fog’; mungx ‘Human classifier’
mi	miav ‘spurn’; miaol ‘mix’; miax ‘knife’
	miedl ‘twist’; mieenh mogc ‘appearance’
	miiul ‘Miao people’; miungh ‘miss, think of’

In finals	[M m]
am	amv ‘patch’; samp ‘three’; yaml ‘wrong’
aem	liaemc ‘measure’; taemk ‘low’; yaeml ‘deep’
em	semh ‘look for’; semp ‘heart’; semt ‘sour’
eem	beeml ‘rush’; heemt ‘cheer for’
im	qimp ‘add’; suic simx ‘viper’
	liimc ‘sickle’; liimx ‘put in order’
om	omv ‘curved, crooked’; womv ‘shade’
um	sumx ‘room’; wumc ‘hold in arms’; juml ‘gather’

In initials	[N n]
n	nadl ‘granule’; naeml ‘black’; naengl ‘still’
	nagp ‘sleep’; nal ‘rich’; neel ‘grip, clutch’
	neip ‘move’; nuic ‘worm’; nuil ‘snow’
ng	ngaic ‘delay’; nganh ‘goose’; ngeengs ‘retreat’
	ngox ‘five’; ngih ‘thin’; nguv gaos ‘nod’
ngu	nguadp ‘flea’; nguedx ‘month’; ngueev ‘cicada’
	dangl ngueengk ngueengk ‘delicious, savory’
ny	nyaenc ‘silver’; nyaengx ‘entrust’; nyal ‘river’
	nyaoh ‘be at’; nyenl ‘smelly’; nyox ‘milk’

In finals	[N n]
an	banl ‘yell’; nanx ‘meat’; sanp ‘weave’
aen	maenl ‘day’; yaens ‘patient’; daenl ‘wear’
ang	yangh ‘shape’; mangv ‘side, aspect’; sangx ‘maintain health’
aeng	saengc ‘straight’; daengc ‘whole’; ；jaengl ‘long time’
en	lenc ‘behind’; xenp xangh ‘body’; dens ‘root’
een	beens ‘coffin’; weenp ‘commit’; xeenk ‘display’
eng	dengv ‘dark’; meik gengl gengl ‘brand new’
eeng	beengv ‘shoot’; lup leengh leengh ‘transparent’
in	bins ‘yeast’; sinc ‘money’; xenc sinp ‘god’
	wangk biinh ‘convenient’; xait liinh ‘offend’;
ing	mingh ‘life’; xingc ‘wall’; yings ‘shadow’
	biingv env ‘power’; biingh ‘ill’
on	donc ‘round’; konx ‘law clause’; xonc ‘preach, spread’
ong	ongp ‘without’; ongs ‘grandfather’; longs ‘dustpan’
un	uns ‘small’; sunx ‘escort, bring’; wunx ‘’; ‘归’
ung	dungh ‘pillar’; sungp dungl ‘language’; jungl ‘lift, carry’

In finals	[O o]
o	oc ‘bat’; bov ‘gall’; sox ‘storehouse’; wox ‘know’
oi	oil ‘cook’; doiv ‘place’; toip ‘drive away’
ou	oux ‘food’; loux ‘lure’; sous ‘vinegar’
ao	aox ‘in’; maoh ‘she, he’; laox ‘big’; gaos ‘head’
om	omv ‘crooked’; womv ‘shade’
on	onl ‘scoop out’; gonv ‘crutch’; xonv ‘return’
ong	ongk ‘empty’; songk ‘release’; xongs ‘resemble’
ob	obs ‘darn clothing’; gobs ‘just now’
od	jiv jods ‘method’; liodx ‘capture’
og	ogs ‘rice crops’; sogp ‘narrow’; xogc ‘redeem’

In initials	[P p]
p	pak ‘spoiled’; pap ‘blind’; peep ‘extremity’
	pegt ‘clap’; pik ‘fit’; pogp ‘pour liquid’
	pugt ‘ash, dust’; puk ‘stamp with feet’; pungt ‘period’
pi	piaengk ‘broken’; piagk ‘pinch’; piap ‘feed’
	piat ‘turn’; pieek ‘distribute’; piuup ‘vomit’

As tone	[P p]
p	keep ‘comb’; kuenp ‘road’; liagp ‘cold’
	longp ‘wrong’; map ‘come’; nagp ‘sleep’
	saip ‘give’; uip ‘float’; xap ‘write’

In initials	[Q q]
q	qaenp ‘heavy’; qamt ‘walk’; qat ‘light’; qeenk ‘urge’
	qemp ‘needle’; qik ‘replace’; qimp ‘add’
	qinp hak ‘whole world’; qop ‘dance’

In initialsThis velar fricative consonant is in process of disappearing. Only elderly people still use it.	[R r]
r	rabl ‘press’; rais ‘far’; ranc ‘home’
	rangl ‘groan’; rav ‘field’

In initials	[S s]
s	saemp ‘early’; saenx ‘roundworm’; sagx ‘courtyard’
	sangp ‘root’; saop ‘reed’; saox ‘husband’
	sap ‘shoulder’; sint ‘call’; sugx ‘bind’

As tone	[S s]
s	dags ‘nail’; daos ‘burn’; dos ‘put, give’; dous ‘nest’
	jis ‘resist’; labs lieds ‘lightning’; mags ‘big’
	mas ‘cloud’; saens ‘thorn’; uns ‘small’

In initials	[T t]
t	tamk ‘visit’; taot ‘exchange’; tenp ‘competition’
	todt ‘take off’; toip ‘retreat’; tonk ‘explain’
	top ‘high official’; touk ‘arrive’

As tone	[T t]
t	egt ‘guest’; hut ‘poor’; kuaot ‘wine’; laot ‘alone’
	mant ‘yellow’; sat ‘kill’; udt ‘hot’; wedt ‘send, develop’
	wongt ‘push’; yaot ‘fear’

In initials	[U u]
gu	guav ‘curse’; guegs ‘shoot’; guil ‘basket’
ku	kuedp soic ‘idle, lazy’; kuonp miac ‘finger ring’
ngu	ngueec ‘saliva’; nguap ‘dog’

In finals	[U u]
u	uc ‘throat’; luv ‘hungry’; nuv ‘see’; xul ‘pearl’
uu	liuuk ‘urge’; miuuh ‘wither’; piuup ‘spit’
ui	uip ‘float’; buil ‘fire’; duis ‘ladle out’; xuip ‘blow’
eeu	eeus ‘teach’; leeuv ‘sting’; meeux ‘cat’
ou	douc ‘group’; loul ‘dig’; souc ‘worry’
iu	biiul ‘jump’; gius ‘twist, wind’; siuv ‘sharp, pointed’
um	sumx ‘room’; wumx ‘drink’
un	uns ‘small’; sunl ‘thorn’; xunp ‘answer’
ung	ungs ‘sound’; mungx ‘Human classifier’; sungp ‘word’
ub	ubs ‘clasp’; bubs ‘lung’; subs ‘meet’
ud	udt ‘hot’; buds ‘rub’; mudx ‘beard’
ug	ugs ‘clothes’; nugs ‘outside’; xugs ‘wash’

As tone	[V v]
v	aov ‘old’; av ‘price’; beengv ‘fire a gun’
	daengv ‘create’; dengv ‘dark’; doiv ‘place’
	gaemv ‘perish’; jeiv ‘steps’; lav ‘burst open’

In initials	[W w]
w	wagx ‘the people’; wah ‘say’; wank ‘take leave’
	wav ‘dirty’; wedt ‘develop’; weent ‘spit’
	wenc ‘tomb’; wongt ‘push’; wox ‘know’

In initials	[X x]
x	xaip ‘currier’; xak ‘dry in sun’; xangc ‘bed’
	xeel ‘dregs’; xeengl ‘seize’; xih ‘only then’
	xogl ‘fist’; xonc ‘pass on, spread’; xunp ‘answer’

As tone	[X x]
x	aemx ‘big piece’; jaenx ‘near’; lagx ‘son’; meix ‘tree’
	mix ‘not yet’; naemx ‘water’; weex ‘do’
	xagx ‘slander’; yax ‘evil’

In initials	[Y y]
y	yac ‘two’; yadc ‘command’; yaeml ‘deep’
	yagc ‘love dearly’; yags ‘tear open’; yanc ‘home’
	yeel ‘frog’; yenl ‘eagle’; yingp ‘spirit’
ny	nyangt ‘grass’; nyenc ‘person’; nyimp ‘with’
	nyaoh ‘be at’; nyenl ‘smelly’; nyuds babl ‘wrinkles’

In initialsIn Chinese loanwords.	[Z z]
z	koup zix ‘by coincidence’; zeil ‘most’; zuh houc ‘governor’
	zongh yangh ‘central’; sih zix ‘lion’